Guests to the Premises for Private Art Exhibitions Shall Be by Appointment Only

Physical or intangible entity, endemic by a person or a grouping of people

This commodity is near abstract and legal rights of belongings. For other uses, see Property (disambiguation).

Buildings of shops, hotels, and residences are common forms of Property

Property is a system of rights that gives people legal control of valuable things,^[one] and also refers to the valuable things themselves. Depending on the nature of the property, an possessor of property may accept the right to consume, alter, share, redefine, rent, mortgage, pawn, sell, exchange, transfer, give away or destroy it, or to exclude others from doing these things,^[2] as well as to perchance carelessness information technology; whereas regardless of the nature of the holding, the owner thereof has the correct to properly utilise it nether the granted property rights.

In economic science and political economy, there are three broad forms of property: private property, public property, and collective belongings (also called cooperative property).^[3] Property that jointly belongs to more than ane party may be possessed or controlled thereby in very similar or very distinct ways, whether simply or complexly, whether equally or unequally. However, in that location is an expectation that each party's will (rather discretion) with regard to the Holding be clearly divers and unconditional,^{[ citation needed ]} to distinguish ownership and easement from rent. The parties might expect their wills to exist unanimous, or alternately every given one of them, when no opportunity for or possibility of a dispute with any other of them exists, may expect his, her, information technology's or their own volition to exist sufficient and absolute. The Restatement (First) of Property defines Property every bit annihilation, tangible or intangible, whereby a legal relationship between persons and the Country enforces a possessory interest or legal title in that thing. This mediating relationship between individual, Property, and State is called a holding regime.^[4]

In sociology and anthropology, Property is ofttimes defined as a relationship between two or more individuals and an object, in which at least one of these individuals holds a bundle of rights over the object. The distinction betwixt "collective property" and "private property" is regarded every bit confusion since unlike individuals frequently hold differing rights over a single object.^{[5] [half dozen]}

Types of Property include real property (the combination of state and whatever improvements to or on the ground), personal Property (physical possessions belonging to a person), private property (Property owned past legal persons, business entities or individual natural persons), public property (Land-owned or publicly owned and available possessions) and intellectual Belongings (exclusive rights over artistic creations, inventions, etc.). Notwithstanding, the last is not ever as widely recognized or enforced.^[seven] An article of Property may have physical and incorporeal parts. A title, or a right of ownership, establishes the relation between the Belongings and other persons, assuring the owner the right to dispose of the Property every bit the owner sees fit.^{[ commendation needed ]} The unqualified term "property" is often used to refer specifically to real Belongings.

Overview [edit]

Often Belongings is divers by the lawmaking of the local sovereignty and protected wholly or more usually partially by such entity, the owner being responsible for any remainder of protection. The standards of the proof apropos proofs of ownerships are also addressed by the code of the local sovereignty, and such entity plays a role accordingly, typically somewhat managerial. Some philosophers^{[ who? ]} assert that holding rights ascend from social convention, while others find justifications for them in morality or in natural law.

Various scholarly disciplines (such every bit law, economics, anthropology or sociology) may treat the concept more systematically, merely definitions vary, most particularly when involving contracts. Positive police defines such rights, and the judiciary can adjudicate and enforce holding rights.

According to Adam Smith, the expectation of turn a profit from "improving one'south stock of capital letter" rests on individual property rights.^[eight] Capitalism has as a primal assumption that property rights encourage their holders to develop the Property, generate wealth, and efficiently classify resources based on the operation of markets. From this has evolved the modern conception of Property as a right enforced past positive law, in the expectation that this volition produce more wealth and better standards of living. However, Smith also expressed a very disquisitional view of the effects of holding laws on inequality:

"Wherever there is a great belongings, at that place is great inequality … Ceremonious authorities, so far every bit it is instituted for the security of property, is in reality instituted for the defence force of the rich against the poor, or of those who have some holding against those who have none at all." ^[9] (Adam Smith, Wealth of Nations)

In his text "The Common Law," Oliver Wendell Holmes describes Property as having two fundamental aspects. The first, possession, can be defined as control over a resource based on the practical inability to contradict the ends of the possessor. The 2nd championship is the expectation that others will recognize rights to control resources, even when not in possession. He elaborates on the differences between these two concepts and proposes a history of how they came to be attached to persons, as opposed to families or entities such as the church.

• Classical liberalism subscribes to the labor theory of Property. They hold that individuals each ain their ain life; information technology follows that one must acknowledge the products of that life and that those products can be traded in complimentary substitution with others.

"Every human has a property in his person. This nobody has a right to, but himself." (John Locke, "Second Treatise on Ceremonious Government")

"The reason why men enter into society is the preservation of their property." (John Locke, "Second Treatise on Civil Regime")

"Life, liberty, and Belongings practice non exist because men take fabricated laws. On the contrary, information technology was the fact that life, liberty, and Belongings existed beforehand that caused men to brand laws in the first place." (Frédéric Bastiat, The Constabulary)

• Conservatism subscribes to the concept that freedom and Belongings are closely linked. The more than widespread the possession of the private Holding, the more stable and productive a state or nation is. Conservatives maintain the economic leveling of Belongings, peculiarly of the forced kind, is not economic progress.

"Divide Holding from individual possession and Leviathan becomes master of all... Upon the foundation of private Property, great civilizations are built. The conservative acknowledges that the possession of Property fixes certain duties upon the possessor; he accepts those moral and legal obligations cheerfully." (Russell Kirk, The Politics of Prudence)

• Socialism 's cardinal principles center on a critique of this concept, stating (among other things) that the cost of defending Property exceeds the returns from individual belongings ownership and that, fifty-fifty when holding rights encourage their holders to develop their Belongings or generate wealth, they do so only for their benefit, which may not coincide with reward to other people or lodge at big.
• Libertarian Socialism generally accepts property rights with a short abandonment period. In other words, a person must make (more-or-less) continuous employ of the detail or else lose ownership rights. This is commonly referred to as "possession property" or "usufruct." Thus, in this usufruct system, absentee ownership is illegitimate, and workers own the machines or other equipment they work with.
• Communism argues that just common ownership of the means of production volition assure the minimization of unequal or unjust outcomes and the maximization of benefits and that; therefore humans should abolish private ownership of capital (as opposed to Property).

Both communism and some kinds of socialism accept as well upheld the notion that private ownership of capital letter is inherently illegitimate. This argument centers on the thought that private ownership of capital e'er benefits one class over another, giving rise to domination through this privately-endemic capital. Communists practice non oppose personal Holding that is "hard-won, self-caused, self-earned" (as "The Communist Manifesto" puts it) by members of the proletariat. Both socialism and communism distinguish advisedly betwixt private ownership of majuscule (country, factories, resource, etc.) and private Holding (homes, textile objects, so forth).

Types of property [edit]

Most legal systems distinguish betwixt dissimilar types of property, particularly betwixt land (immovable belongings, estate in country, real estate, real property) and all other forms of property—goods and chattels, movable property or personal property, including the value of legal tender if non the legal tender itself, as the manufacturer rather than the possessor might exist the owner. They oftentimes distinguish tangible and intangible holding. One categorization scheme specifies three species of Property: country, improvements (immovable human being-made things), and personal Property (movable man-made things).^[10]

In common law, real holding (immovable property) is the combination of interests in land and improvements thereto, and personal property is interest in movable holding. Real belongings rights are rights relating to the land. These rights include ownership and usage. Owners can grant rights to persons and entities in the form of leases, licenses, and easements.

Throughout the concluding centuries of the 2nd millennium, with the development of more complex theories of property, the concept of personal holding had become divided^{[ past whom? ]} into tangible property (such as cars and wearable) and intangible belongings (such as financial assets and related rights, including stocks and bonds; intellectual holding, including patents, copyrights and trademarks; digital files; communication channels; and certain forms of identifier, including Cyberspace domain names, some forms of network address, some forms of handle and again trademarks).

Treatment of intangible Property is such that an article of Property is, by constabulary or otherwise past traditional conceptualization, subject to expiration even when inheritable, which is a key stardom from tangible Property. Upon expiration, the Property, if of the intellectual category, becomes a office of public domain, to exist used past but not owned by everyone, and maybe used by more than i party simultaneously due to the inapplicability of scarcity to intellectual Property. Whereas things such as communications channels and pairs of electromagnetic spectrum bands and betoken manual power can only be used by a single political party at a time, or a single party in a divisible context, if endemic or used. Thus far or usually, those are not considered Property, or at least not private Property, even though the political party begetting right of exclusive use may transfer that right to some other.

In many societies the human being body is considered belongings of some kind or other. The question of the ownership and rights to one'south body arise in general in the discussion of human rights, including the specific issues of slavery, conscription, rights of children nether the age of bulk, matrimony, abortion, prostitution, drugs, euthanasia and organ donation.

[edit]

Of the post-obit, only auction and at-will sharing involve no encumbrance.

		General meaning or description		Histrion	Complementary notion	Complementary role player
Sale		Giving of Property or ownership, just in substitution for money (units of some grade of currency).		Seller	Buying	Buyer
Sharing	Sharing	Allowing use of property, whether exclusive or as a articulation operation.		Host	Adaptation	Guest
					Tenancy	Tenant
	Hire	Assuasive limited and temporary only potentially renewable, exclusive use of property, but in exchange for bounty.		Renter
					Lease	Leasee
	Licensure			Licensor
Incorporeal division	Incorporeal partition	Ameliorate known as nonpossessory involvement or variation of the same notion, of which an instance may be given to another party, which is itself an incorporeal form of property. The particular interest may hands be destroyed once information technology and the holding are owned by the aforementioned party.		North/A
	Share	Aspect of Property whereby ownership or equity of a particular portion of all Belongings (stock) ever to exist produced from it may be given to another party, which is itself an incorporeal form of Property. The share may easily be destroyed once it and the belongings are owned by the same political party.
	Easement	Aspect of Holding whereby the right of a particular utilise of it may be given to some other party, which is itself an incorporeal grade of Belongings. The easement or employ-right may easily be destroyed once it and the belongings are owned by the same party.
Lien	Lien	Status whereby unencumbered buying of holding is contingent upon completion of obligation; the holding existence collateral and associated with security interest in such an arrangement.		Lienor	Lieneeship	Lienee
	Mortgage	Condition whereby while possession of property is achieved or retained, possession of it is contingent upon performance of obligation to somebody indebted to, and unencumbered buying of information technology is contingent upon completion of obligation. The performance of obligation usually implies partition of the primary into installments.		Mortgagor	Mortgage-brokering	Mortgage-broker
	Pawn	Condition whereby while encumbered ownership of Belongings is accomplished or retained, burdened ownership of it is contingent upon the performance of the obligation to somebody indebted to, and possession and unencumbered buying of it is contingent upon completion of obligation.		Pledge	Pawnbrokering	Pawnbroker
Collision (Conflict)		Inability for Property to be properly used or occupied due to scarcity or contradiction, the effective impossibility of sharing; possibly leading to eviction or the contrary, if the resolution is accomplished rather than a stagnant condition; not necessarily involving or implying conscious dispute.		North/A
Security (Ward)		Caste of resistance to or protection from harm, use, or taking; the Property and any mechanisms of protection of it beingness ward. (Alternately, in finance, the word as a countable substantive refers to proof of ownership of investment instruments or as an uncountable noun to collateral.) There may be an interest of obscurities, camouflage, barriers, armor, locks, alarms, booby traps, homing beacons, automated recorders, decoys, weaponry, or sentinels. With country, moats, trenches, or entire buildings may be involved. With buildings or certain forms of transport, turrets may be involved. With information, encryption, steganography, or cocky-destruct adequacy may be involved. With communications reliability, aqueduct-hopping may exist involved, similar immunity or endeavour thereat from jamming. With devices of proprietary design, the respective compositions may be more mangled, more than convoluted, and more than complex than functionality warrants, hence confusing or obscure for protective purposes (though possibly to conceal unapproved copying instead). With contractual rights, retentions of collateral and risks of jeopardy of collateral may be involved.		Securer	Protecteeship	Protectee
				Warden	Ward

Violation [edit]

	General meaning or description, the activities occurring in a way not beholden to the wishes of the possessor	Committer
Trespassing	Utilize of physical and usually but not necessarily only immovable Belongings or occupation of it.	Trespasser
Vandalism	Alteration, damage, or devastation of physical Property or to the advent of information technology.	Vandal
Infringement	(Incorporeal illustration to trespassing.) Alteration or duplication of an example of intellectual Property, and publication of the respectively alternate or duplicate; the sample existence the information in a medium or a device for which a design plan predates and is the ground of fabrication.	Infringer
Violation		Violator
Theft	Taking of Property in a way that excludes the owner from it, or functional alteration of the Belongings ownership.	Thief
Piracy	The cognisant or incognisant reproduction and distribution of Intellectual Property and the possession of intellectual Property that saw publication of its duplicates in the previous process.	Pirate
	Infringement with the effect of lost profits for the owner or infringement involving profit or personal gain.
Plagiarism	Publication of a work, whether information technology is intellectual Property (perhaps copyrighted) or not, whether information technology is in public domain or not, without credit beingness afforded to the creator, every bit though the piece of work is original in publication.	Plagiarist

Miscellaneous activeness [edit]

	General meaning or description	Committer
Squatting	Occupation of Property that either is unused and unkept or was abandoned, whether the Property withal has an owner. (If the Property is owned and non left, then the squatting is trespassing if any usage non beholden to the wishes of the owner is done in the process.)	Squatter
Reverse engineering science	Discovery of how a device works, whether information technology is an case of intellectual Property (perhaps patented) or not, whether it is in the public domain, and how to alter or duplicate it without access to or knowledge of the corresponding design plan.	Opposite engineer
Ghostwriting	Cosmos of a textual piece of work, whereby another party is explicitly allowed to be credited equally a creator in publication.	Ghostwriter

Bug in Belongings theory [edit]

What can be property? [edit]

The 2 major justifications are given for the original Holding, or the homestead principle, are endeavor and scarcity. John Locke emphasized effort, "mixing your labor"^[11] with an object, or clearing and cultivating virgin land. Benjamin Tucker preferred to look at the telos of Belongings, i.e., What is the purpose of Belongings? His answer: to solve the scarcity problem. Just when items are relatively scarce concerning people's desires, practice they become Holding.^[12] For example, hunter-gatherers did not consider state to be holding, since there was no shortage of country. Agrestal societies later made arable land property, every bit it was scarce. For something to be economically scarce, it must necessarily accept the "exclusivity property"—that utilize by one person excludes others from using it. These two justifications lead to different conclusions on what tin exist Property. Intellectual Holding—incorporeal things similar ideas, plans, orderings and arrangements (musical compositions, novels, reckoner programs)—are generally considered valid Holding to those who support an effort justification, but invalid to those who support a scarcity justification, since the things don't take the exclusivity belongings (however, those who support a scarcity justification may still back up other "intellectual property" laws such every bit Copyright, equally long as these are a subject of contract instead of government mediation). Thus even ardent propertarians may disagree about IP.^[13] By either standard, one's body is one'southward property.

From some anarchist points of view, the validity of Property depends on whether the "property correct" requires enforcement past the State. Different forms of "property" require different amounts of enforcement: intellectual Belongings requires a slap-up deal of state intervention to enforce, buying of distant physical Property requires quite a lot, ownership of carried objects requires very lilliputian. In contrast, requesting one's own trunk requires admittedly no state intervention. So some anarchists don't believe in Property at all.

Many things have existed that did not have an possessor, sometimes called the commons. The term "commons," withal, is too often used to mean something entirely unlike: "general commonage buying"—i.e. common ownership. Also, the same term is sometimes used by statists to mean government-owned Property that the full general public is allowed to access (public Property). Law in all societies has tended to reduce the number of things not having articulate owners. Supporters of property rights argue that this enables ameliorate protection of deficient resource due to the tragedy of the commons. At the same time, critics say that information technology leads to the 'exploitation' of those resources for personal proceeds and that it hinders taking advantage of potential network furnishings. These arguments have differing validity for different types of "property"—things that are not deficient are, for instance, non subject field to the tragedy of the commons. Some apparent critics advocate general collective ownership rather than ownerlessness.

Things that do not have owners include: ideas (except for intellectual Property), seawater (which is, however, protected by anti-pollution laws), parts of the seafloor (see the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Body of water for restrictions), gases in Earth's atmosphere, animals in the wild (although in virtually nations, animals are tied to the land. In the United States and Canada, wild animals is mostly defined in statute as Belongings of the Land. This public buying of wildlife is referred to equally the North American Model of Wildlife Conservation and is based on The Public Trust Doctrine.^[fourteen]), celestial bodies and outer space, and land in Antarctica.

The nature of children under the historic period of majority is another contested issue here. In aboriginal societies, children were generally considered the Property of their parents. However, children in well-nigh modernistic communities theoretically own their bodies merely are not regarded as competent to exercise their rights. Their parents or guardians are given about of the fundamental rights of control over them.

Questions regarding the nature of ownership of the body too come upwardly in the issue of ballgame, drugs, and euthanasia.

In many aboriginal legal systems (e.g., early Roman law), religious sites (e.g. temples) were considered Property of the God or gods they were devoted to. All the same, religious pluralism makes it more convenient to have sacred sites endemic by the spiritual torso that runs them.

Intellectual property and air (airspace, no-fly zone, pollution laws, which can include tradable emissions rights) can be property in some senses of the word.

Ownership of land tin can exist held separately from the buying of rights over that land, including sporting rights,^[xv] mineral rights, evolution rights, air rights, and such other rights as may be worth segregating from uncomplicated land ownership.

Who can be an owner? [edit]

Ownership laws may vary widely among countries depending on the nature of the Holding of involvement (e.g., firearms, real Property, personal Belongings, animals). Persons can own Property directly. In most societies legal entities, such as corporations, trusts and nations (or governments) own holding.

In many countries women have limited access to Property following restrictive inheritance and family unit laws, nether which but men have actual or formal rights to own Property.

In the Inca empire, the dead emperors, considered gods, withal controlled Property afterward decease.^[16]

Whether and to what extent the State may interfere with holding [edit]

In 17th-century England, the legal directive that nobody may enter a domicile, which in the 17th-century would typically take been male person-owned unless by the owners invitation or consent, was established every bit common law in Sir Edward Coke 's "Institutes of the Lawes of England." "For a human's house is his castle, et domus sua cuique est tutissimum refugium [and each human being's domicile is his safest refuge]." It is the origin of the famous dictum, "an Englishman's dwelling is his castle".^[17] The ruling enshrined into law what several English language writers had espoused in the 16th-century.^[17] Dissimilar the rest of Europe the British had a proclivity towards owning their own homes.^[17] British Prime Minister William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham divers the pregnant of castle in 1763, "The poorest human being may in his cottage bid defiance to all the forces of the crown. It may be frail – its roof may shake – the wind may blow through it – the storm may enter – the rain may enter – but the King of England cannot enter." ^[17]

A principle exported to the Us, under U.Due south. law, the principal limitations on whether and the extent to which the Country may interfere with belongings rights are set past the Constitution. The "Takings" clause requires that the government (whether Country or federal—for the 14th Amendment'southward due process clause imposes the fifth Amendment's takings clause on land governments) may accept private Property only for a public purpose after exercising due process of law, and upon making "just bounty." If an interest is not deemed a "property" right or the conduct is but an intentional tort, these limitations do non apply, and the doctrine of sovereign immunity precludes relief.^[18] Moreover, if the interference does not almost completely brand the Property valueless, the interference volition not be deemed a taking just instead a mere regulation of utilise.^[19] On the other hand, some governmental regulations of property use have been deemed so severe that they have been considered "regulatory takings." ^[20] Moreover, bear is sometimes deemed only a nuisance, or another tort has been held a taking of Belongings where the conduct was sufficiently persistent and severe.^[21]

Theories [edit]

There exist many theories of Property. One is the relatively rare showtime possession theory of Property, where buying of something is seen as justified just by someone seizing something before someone else does.^[22] Possibly one of the most popular is the natural rights definition of holding rights as avant-garde past John Locke. Locke advanced the theory that God granted dominion over nature to man through Adam in the book of Genesis. Therefore, he theorized that when one mixes 1'south labor with nature, one gains a relationship with that part of nature with which the labor is mixed, subject to the limitation that there should be "enough, and as practiced, left in common for others." (meet Lockean proviso)^[23]

From the RERUM NOVARUM, Pope Leo Thirteen wrote, "Information technology is surely undeniable that, when a man engages in remunerative labor, the impelling reason and motive of his work is to obtain belongings, and later on that to hold it every bit his very ain."

Anthropology studies the diverse ownership systems, rights of use and transfer, and possession^[24] under the term "theories of property." As mentioned, western legal theory is based on the possessor of Property existence a legal person. Withal, not all property systems are founded on this basis.

In every culture studied, ownership and possession are the subjects of custom and regulation, and "law" is where the term can meaningfully be applied. Many tribal cultures balance individual rights with the laws of collective groups: tribes, families, associations, and nations. For example, the 1839 Cherokee Constitution frames the upshot in these terms:

Sec. 2. The lands of the Cherokee Nation shall remain common Holding. Even so, the improvements made thereon, and in possession of the citizens respectively who made, or may rightfully own them: Provided, that the citizens of the Nation possessing the sectional and indefeasible right to their improvements, every bit expressed in this article, shall possess no right or power to dispose of their improvements, in any mode whatever, to the Us, individual States, or individual citizens thereof; and that, whenever whatever citizen shall remove with his furnishings out of the limits of this Nation, and become a denizen of any other government, all his rights and privileges equally a denizen of this Nation shall cease: Provided, notwithstanding, That the National Council shall have ability to re-admit, past law, to all the rights of citizenship, whatever such person or persons who may, at whatsoever time, want to return to the Nation, on memorializing the National Council for such readmission.

Communal property systems describe ownership as belonging to the unabridged social and political unit of measurement. Common ownership in a hypothetical communist society is distinguished from primitive forms of common Holding that have existed throughout history, such as Communalism and primitive communism, in that communist mutual buying is the consequence of social and technological developments leading to the emptying of textile scarcity in society.^[25]

Corporate systems describe ownership as being attached to an identifiable group with an identifiable responsible individual. The Roman property law was based on such a corporate system. In a well-known paper that contributed to the creation of the field of constabulary and economics in the late 1960s, the American scholar Harold Demsetz described how the concept of property rights makes social interactions easier:

In the globe of Robinson Crusoe, belongings rights play no role. Property rights are an musical instrument of society and derive their significance from the fact that they help a human being form those expectations which he can reasonably concord in his dealings with others. These expectations observe expression in club's laws, community, and more. An owner of property rights possesses the consent of fellowmen to allow him to human activity in detail means. An owner expects the customs to foreclose others from interfering with his actions, provided that these deportment are not prohibited in the specifications of his rights.

—Harold Demsetz (1967), "Toward a Theory of Property Rights", The American Economical Review 57 (two), p. 347.^[26]

Dissimilar societies may have other theories of Property for differing types of buying. For instance, Pauline Peters argued that property systems are not isolable from the social fabric, and notions of Property may not be stated equally such but instead may be framed in negative terms: for example, the taboo system among Polynesian peoples.

Holding in philosophy [edit]

In medieval and Renaissance Europe the term "holding" essentially referred to state. After much rethinking, land has come to be regarded as only a special instance of the belongings genus. This rethinking was inspired by at to the lowest degree three broad features of early mod Europe: the surge of commerce, the breakdown of efforts to prohibit involvement (then called "usury"), and the development of centralized national monarchies.

Aboriginal philosophy [edit]

Urukagina, the male monarch of the Sumerian metropolis-state Lagash, established the commencement laws that forbade compelling the sale of Belongings.^[27]

The Bible in Leviticus 19:11 and ibid. 19:13 states that the Israelites are not to steal.

Aristotle, in Politics, advocates "private property."^[28] He argues that self-interest leads to neglect of the commons. "[T]lid which is common to the greatest number has the least care bestowed upon it. Everyone thinks importantly of his ain, hardly at all of the common interest, and only when he is himself concerned as an individual." ^[29]

In addition, he says that when Property is common, there are natural problems that arise due to differences in labor: "If they do not share every bit enjoyments and toils, those who labor much and become little will necessarily mutter of those who labor little and receive or consume much. But indeed, there is e'er a difficulty in men living together and having all human relations in common, but especially in their having common Property." (Politics, 1261b34)

Cicero held that at that place is no private belongings nether natural law but merely under human police force.^[30] Seneca viewed property equally only becoming necessary when men become acquisitive.^[31] St. Ambrose later adopted this view and St. Augustine even derided heretics for complaining the Emperor could not confiscate belongings they had labored for.^[32]

Medieval philosophy [edit]

Thomas Aquinas (13th century) [edit]

The canon law Decretum Gratiani maintained that mere human being police force creates holding, repeating the phrases used by St. Augustine.^[33] St. Thomas Aquinas agreed with regard to the private consumption of property but modified patristic theory in finding that the private possession of holding is necessary.^[34] Thomas Aquinas concludes that, given certain detailed provisions,^[35]

• it is natural for man to possess external things
• it is lawful for a human to possess a affair every bit his own
• The essence of theft consists in taking another's affair secretly
• Theft and robbery are sins of different species, and robbery is a more grievous sin than theft
• theft is a sin; it is also a mortal sin
• it is, however, lawful to steal through stress of need:" in cases of need, all things are common holding."

Modern philosophy [edit]

Thomas Hobbes (17th century) [edit]

The main writings of Thomas Hobbes appeared between 1640 and 1651—during and immediately following the state of war betwixt forces loyal to King Charles I and those loyal to Parliament. In his own words, Hobbes' reflection began with the idea of "giving to every human his ain," a phrase he drew from the writings of Cicero. But he wondered: How can everyone call annihilation his own? He concluded: My own can merely truly be mine if there is one unambiguously strongest power in the realm, and that ability treats it as mine, protecting its status as such.^[36]

James Harrington (17th century) [edit]

A contemporary of Hobbes, James Harrington, reacted to the aforementioned tumult differently: he considered property natural but not inevitable. The author of "Oceana," he may have been the first political theorist to postulate that political ability is a consequence, non the crusade, of the distribution of Property. He said that the worst possible state of affairs is when the commoners have half a nation's Holding, with the crown and nobility holding the other half—a circumstance fraught with instability and violence. He suggested a much better situation (a stable commonwealth) would exist once the commoners own nearly Holding.

In afterward years, the ranks of Harrington's admirers included American revolutionary and founder John Adams.

Robert Filmer (17th century) [edit]

Some other member of the Hobbes/Harrington generation, Sir Robert Filmer, reached conclusions much like Hobbes', merely through Biblical exegesis. Filmer said that the institution of kingship is coordinating to that of fatherhood, that subjects are however, children, whether obedient or unruly and that property rights are akin to the household goods that a father may dole out among his children—his to take back and dispose of according to his pleasance.

John Locke (17th century) [edit]

In the post-obit generation, John Locke sought to answer Filmer, creating a rationale for a counterbalanced constitution in which the monarch had a part to play, only non an overwhelming role. Since Filmer's views essentially require that the Stuart family be uniquely descended from the patriarchs of the Bible, and even in the late 17th century, that was a difficult view to uphold, Locke attacked Filmer's views in his First Treatise on Regime, freeing him to gear up out his ain views in the Second Treatise on Civil Authorities. Therein, Locke imagined a pre-social world each of the unhappy residents which are willing to create a social contract considering otherwise, "the enjoyment of the property he has in this state is very unsafe, very insecure," and therefore, the "bang-up and chief end, therefore, of men's uniting into commonwealths, and putting themselves under regime, is the preservation of their property." ^[37] They would, he allowed, create a monarchy, but its task would be to execute the volition of an elected legislature. "To this end" (to attain the previously specified goal), he wrote, "it is that men give up all their natural ability to the order they enter into, and the community put the Legislative power into such hands every bit they think fit, with this trust, that they shall be governed by alleged laws, or else their peace, quiet, and belongings will still exist at the same dubiety every bit information technology was in the state of nature." ^[38]

Even when information technology keeps to proper legislative form, Locke held that there are limits to what a regime established past such a contract might rightly do.

"It cannot be supposed that [the hypothetical contractors] they should intend, had they a ability and then to do, to give anyone or more an absolute arbitrary ability over their persons and estates, and put a forcefulness into the magistrate's hand to execute his unlimited will arbitrarily upon them; this were to put themselves into a worse condition than the State of nature, wherein they had a liberty to defend their right against the injuries of others, and were upon equal terms of force to maintain information technology, whether invaded by a single human being or many in combination. Whereas by supposing they have given themselves up to the absolute arbitrary power and will of a legislator, they have disarmed themselves, and armed him to make a casualty of them when he pleases..." ^[39]

Both "persons" and "estates" are to be protected from the arbitrary power of any magistrate, including legislative power and volition." In Lockean terms, depredations confronting an estate are but equally plausible a justification for resistance and revolution as are those against persons. In neither case are subjects required to permit themselves to get prey.

To explicate the ownership of Property, Locke advanced a labor theory of Belongings.

David Hume (18th century) [edit]

In dissimilarity to the figures discussed in this section thus far David Hume lived a relatively serenity life that had settled down to a relatively stable social and political structure. He lived the life of a solitary writer until 1763 when, at 52 years of age, he went off to Paris to work at the British diplomatic mission.

In dissimilarity, one might remember to his polemical works on religion and his empiricism-driven skeptical epistemology, Hume's views on police and Belongings were quite conservative.

He did not believe in hypothetical contracts or the love of humanity in full general and sought to basis politics upon actual human beings as one knows them. "In general," he wrote, "it may be affirmed that there is no such passion in the human heed, as the dear of mankind, merely as such, independent of personal qualities, or services, or of relation to ourselves." Existing customs should not lightly exist disregarded because they have come to be what they are due to human nature. With this endorsement of custom comes an endorsement of existing governments because he conceived of the 2 as complementary: "A regard for liberty, though a laudable passion, ought commonly to exist subordinate to a reverence for established government."

Therefore, Hume'due south view was that in that location are holding rights because of and to the extent that the existing law, supported by social customs, secure them.^[40] He offered some applied home-spun advice on the general subject, though, as when he referred to avarice every bit "the spur of industry," and expressed business organisation almost excessive levels of taxation, which "destroy industry, by engendering despair."

Adam Smith [edit]

"Civil government, so far equally it is instituted for the security of property, is, in reality, instituted for the defense of the rich confronting the poor, or of those who take holding against those who have none at all."

"The Property that every man has in his labour is the original foundation of all other Property, so it is the virtually sacred and inviolable. The inheritance of a poor homo lies in the force and dexterity of his easily, and to hinder him from employing this strength and dexterity in what way he thinks proper without injury to his neighbor, is a manifestly violation of this virtually sacred Property. It is a manifest encroachment upon the just liberty of the workman and those who might be disposed to utilise him. It hinders the ane from working at what he thinks proper, and so it hinders the others from employing whom they think proper. To judge whether he is fit to be employed may surely exist trusted to the discretion of the employers whose involvement it so much concerns. The afflicted anxiety of the constabulary-giver lest they should utilise an improper person is as impertinent every bit it is oppressive." — (Source: Adam Smith, The Wealth of Nations, 1776, Book I, Chapter Ten, Function II.)

By the mid 19th century, the industrial revolution had transformed England and the U.s. and had begun in France. Equally a event, the conventional conception of what constitutes Belongings expanded beyond land to encompass scarce appurtenances. In France, the revolution of the 1790s had led to large-scale confiscation of land formerly endemic by the church building and king. The restoration of the monarchy led to claims past those dispossessed to have their former lands returned.

Karl Marx [edit]

Section 8, "Primitive Accumulation" of Capital letter involves a critique of Liberal Theories of holding rights. Marx notes that under Feudal Police, peasants were legally entitled to their land as the aristocracy was to its manors. Marx cites several historical events in which large numbers of the peasantry were removed from their lands, and so seized by the nobility. This seized state was so used for commercial ventures (sheep herding). Marx sees this "Primitive Accumulation" equally integral to the creation of English Capitalism. This upshot created a sizeable un-landed class that had to work for wages to survive. Marx asserts that Liberal theories of Belongings are "idyllic" fairy tales that hide a trigger-happy historical process.

Charles Comte: legitimate origin of belongings [edit]

Charles Comte, in "Traité de la propriété" (1834), attempted to justify the legitimacy of private Property in response to the Bourbon Restoration. According to David Hart, Comte had 3 master points: "firstly, that interference by the country over the centuries in property buying has had dire consequences for justice as well every bit for economic productivity; secondly, that property is legitimate when it emerges in such a way as non to harm anyone; and thirdly, that historically some, merely past no ways all, property which has evolved has washed so legitimately, with the implication that the nowadays distribution of belongings is a circuitous mixture of legitimately and illegitimately held titles." ^[42]

Comte, as Proudhon later did, rejected Roman legal tradition with its toleration of slavery. Instead, he posited a communal "national" property consisting of non-scarce goods, such as land in ancient hunter-gatherer societies. Since agriculture was so much more efficient than hunting and gathering, individual Holding appropriated by someone for farming left remaining hunter-gatherers with more country per person and hence did non harm them. Thus this type of country appropriation did not violate the Lockean proviso – at that place was "still enough, and as good left." Subsequently theorists would employ Comte's analysis in response to the socialist critique of Property.

Pierre-Joseph Proudhon: holding is theft [edit]

In his 1840 treatise What is Holding?, Pierre Proudhon answers with "Belongings is theft!" In natural resources, he sees two types of Property, "de jure" Holding (legal championship) and "de facto" Property (physical possession), and argues that the former is illegitimate. Proudhon's conclusion is that "property, to be just and possible, must necessarily take equality for its condition."

His analysis of the production of labor upon natural resources as Property (usufruct) is more than nuanced. He asserts that land itself cannot exist Property, still it should exist held by individual possessors every bit stewards of humanity, with the production of labor being the producer's belongings. Proudhon reasoned that any wealth gained without labor was stolen from those who labored to create that wealth. Even a voluntary contract to give up the product of piece of work to an employer was theft, co-ordinate to Proudhon, since the controller of natural resources had no moral correct to accuse others for the apply of that which he did not labor to create did non ain.

Proudhon's theory of Property greatly influenced the budding socialist movement, inspiring agitator theorists such as Mikhail Bakunin who modified Proudhon's ideas, as well as antagonizing theorists like Karl Marx.

Frédéric Bastiat: property is value [edit]

Frédéric Bastiat 'south master treatise on Property can be found in affiliate 8 of his book "Economic Harmonies" (1850).^[43] In a radical departure from traditional holding theory, he defines Belongings, non as a physical object, simply rather equally a relationship between people apropos a thing. Thus, saying one owns a glass of water is merely verbal shorthand for "I may justly gift or trade this water to some other person." In essence, what one owns is non the object but the object's value. Past "value," Bastiat means "market value"; he emphasizes this is quite dissimilar from utility. "In our relations with ane another, we are not owners of the utility of things, merely their value, and value is the appraisement fabricated of reciprocal services."

Bastiat theorized that, as a issue of technological progress and the division of labor, the stock of communal wealth increases over fourth dimension; that the hours of piece of work an unskilled laborer expends to purchase east.g., 100 liters of wheat, decreases over time, thus amounting to "complimentary" satisfaction.^[44] Thus, private holding continually destroys itself, becoming transformed into communal wealth. The increasing proportion of communal wealth to private holding results in a trend toward equality of humanity. "Since the homo race began in greatest poverty, that is, when at that place were the near obstacles to overcome, all that has been accomplished from one era to the adjacent is due to the spirit of property."

This transformation of individual Property into the communal domain, Bastiat points out, does non imply that personal Holding will e'er totally disappear. On the opposite, this is because man, equally he progresses, continually invents new and more sophisticated needs and desires.

Andrew J. Galambos: a precise definition of property [edit]

Andrew J. Galambos (1924–1997) was an astrophysicist and philosopher who innovated a social structure that sought to maximize human peace and liberty. Galambos' concept of Property was essential to his philosophy. He defined Property equally a human's life and all non-procreative derivatives of his life. (Because the English language language is scarce in omitting the feminine from "man" when referring to humankind, it is implicit and obligatory that the feminine is included in the term "man.")

Galambos taught that Property is essential to a not-coercive social construction. He defined freedom every bit follows: "Freedom is the societal condition that exists when every individual has full (100%) control over his holding." ^[45] Galambos defines Holding as having the following elements:

• Primordial Property, which is an individual'south life
• Primary Property, which includes ideas, thoughts, and actions
• Secondary Property includes all tangible and intangible possessions that are derivatives of the private'southward chief Property.

Holding includes all non-procreative derivatives of an individual's life; this ways children are not the Property of their parents.^[46] and "chief property" (a person's own ideas). ^[47]

Galambos repeatedly emphasized that actual government exists to protect Belongings and that the Land attacks Property. For example, the Land requires payment for its services in the course of taxes whether or not people desire such services. Since an private's money is his Property, the confiscation of coin in the form of taxes is an assault on Property. War machine conscription is likewise an assault on a person's primordial Property.

Contemporary views [edit]

Contemporary political thinkers who believe that natural persons savor rights to own Property and enter into contracts espouse 2 views about John Locke. On the one hand, some admire Locke, such equally William H. Hutt (1956), who praised Locke for laying down the "quintessence of individualism." On the other mitt, those such as Richard Pipes regard Locke's arguments as weak and retrieve that undue reliance thereon has weakened the crusade of individualism in recent times. Pipes has written that Locke's piece of work "marked a regression because it rested on the concept of Natural Law" rather than upon Harrington'south sociological framework.

Hernando de Soto has argued that an essential characteristic of the backer market economy is the functioning land protection of belongings rights in a formal property system which records ownership and transactions. These belongings rights and the whole legal arrangement of Property make possible:

• Greater independence for individuals from local community arrangements to protect their assets
• Clear, provable, and protectable ownership
• The standardization and integration of property rules and holding data in a state as a whole
• Increased trust arising from a greater certainty of penalisation for cheating in economic transactions
• More formal and complex written statements of ownership that let the more than straightforward supposition of shared risk and ownership in companies, and insurance against the chance
• Greater availability of loans for new projects since more than things can serve every bit collateral for the loans
• Easier access to and more reliable information regarding such things every bit credit history and the worth of assets
• Increased fungibility, standardization, and transferability of statements documenting the buying of Property, which paves the way for structures such every bit national markets for companies and the easy transportation of Belongings through complex networks of individuals and other entities
• Greater protection of biodiversity due to minimizing of shifting agriculture practices

According to de Soto, all of the higher up enhance economic growth.^[48] Academics take criticized the capitalist frame through which Property is viewed pointing to the fact that commodifying Property or land by assigning it monetary value takes away from the traditional cultural heritage, especially from starting time nation inhabitants.^{[49] [l]} These academics point to the personal nature of Property and its link to identity being irreconcilable with wealth creation that contemporary Western order subscribes to.^[49]

Run across also [edit]

• Allemansrätten
• Anarchism
• Binary economics
• Buying agent
• Capitalism
• Communism
• Homestead principle
• Immovable Property
• Inclusive Republic
• International Property Rights Index
• Labor theory of belongings
• Libertarianism
• Lien
• Off programme
• Ownership society
• Patrimony
• Personal holding
• Propertarian
• Property is theft
• Holding law
• Holding rights (economics)
• Socialism
• Sovereignty
• Tax as theft
• Interpersonal relationship
• Public liability

Holding-giving (legal)

• Charity
• Essenes
• Gift
• Kibbutz
• Monasticism
• Tithe, Zakat (modernistic sense)

Belongings-taking (legal)

• Adverse possession
• Confiscation
• Eminent domain
• Fine
• Jizya
• Nationalization
• Regulatory fees and costs
• Search and seizure
• Tariff
• Tax
• Turf and twig (historical)
• Tithe, Zakat (historical sense)
• RS 2477

Property-taking (illegal)

• Theft

References [edit]

1. ^ Powell, Richard R. (2009). "2.02". In Wolf, Michael Alan (ed.). Powell on Existent Holding. New Providence, NJ. ISBN9781579111588.
2. ^ "holding", WordNet , retrieved 2010-06-nineteen
3. ^ Gregory, Paul R.; Stuart, Robert C. (2003). Comparing Economical Systems in the Twenty-First Century. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. p. 27. ISBN0-618-26181-8. At that place are iii broad forms of property ownership-private, public, and commonage (cooperative).
4. ^ Pellissary, Sony; Dey Biswas, Sattwick (November 2012). "Emerging Property Regimes in India: What it Holds for the Future of Socio-economic Rights?" (PDF). www.irma.ac.in. Institute of Rural Management Anand. Retrieved 26 October 2021.
5. ^ Graber, David (2002). Toward an Anthropological Theory of Value. New York: Palgrave. p. ix. ISBN978-0-312-24044-8. ...i might fence that Property is a social relationship likewise, reified in the aforementioned mode: when one buys a car ane is not purchasing the correct to employ it and then much as the right to prevent others from using it-or, to be even more precise, one is purchasing their recognition that one has the right to do so. But since information technology is then diffuse, a social relation- a contract, in result, between the owner and everyone else in the entire world is easy to think of it as a thing.
6. ^ Max Planck Institute for Social Anthropology, Property in Anthropology, "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2015-01-16. Retrieved 2015-01-15 . {{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
7. ^ Anti-copyright advocates and other critics of intellectual Belongings dispute the concept of intellectual Property.[1].
8. ^ Understanding the Global Economy, Howard Richards (p. 355). Peace Education Books. 2004. ISBN978-0-9748961-0-6.
9. ^ An inquiry into the nature and causes of the wealth of nations (p. 177). Hackett Publishing Company. 1993. ISBN0-87220-204-6 . Retrieved 2011-12-xv .
10. ^ "13 Code of Federal Regulations § 314.1 ("Definitions")". Cornell University's Legal Data Institute . Retrieved 2021-05-09 . Belongings means Real Property, Personal Belongings and mixed Property. . . . Real Property ways whatever country, whether raw or improved, and includes structures, fixtures, appurtenances and other permanent improvements, excluding moveable mechanism and equipment. Real Property includes land that is served by the construction of Project infrastructure (such as roads, sewers, and h2o lines) where the infrastructure contributes to the value of such land as a specific purpose of the Projection.
11. ^ "John Locke: 2d Treatise of Ceremonious Government: Chapter 5". Retrieved 14 May 2015.
12. ^ "News – WendyMcElroy.com". Archived from the original on 6 July 2008. Retrieved 14 May 2015.
13. ^ "Molinari Institute – Anti-Copyright Resources". Retrieved fourteen May 2015.
14. ^ "The North American Model of Wildlife Conservation and Public Trust Doctrine". Archived from the original on 2012-01-nineteen. Retrieved 2012-08-19 .
15. ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-02-27. Retrieved 2007-12-31 . {{cite spider web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
16. ^ Mckay, John P. , 2004, "A History of World Societies." Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company
17. ^ ^{a b c d} "An Englishman'southward dwelling house is his castle". Phrases.org.uk . Retrieved 6 December 2018.
18. ^ Run into, for example, "Us v. Willow River Power Co." (non a holding correct because the forcefulness of law non behind information technology); "Schillinger five. the United States," 155 U.Southward. 163 (1894) (patent infringement is a tort, non taking of Property); "Zoltek Corp. v. United States", 442 F.3d 1345 (Fed. Cir. 2006).
19. ^ " Penn Key Transportation Co. five. City of New York", 438 U.South. 104 (1978).
20. ^ Run into United States v. Riverside Bayview Homes, 474 U.Southward. 121 (1985).
21. ^ United States five. Causby, 328 U.Due south. 256 (1946).
22. ^ "Property". Graham Oppy. "The shorter Routledge encyclopedia of philosophy." Editor Edward Craig. Routledge, 2005, p. 858
23. ^ Locke, John (1690). "The Second Treatise of Civil Government". Retrieved 2010-06-26 .
24. ^ Hann, Chris "A new double move? Anthropological perspectives on Property in the historic period of neoliberalism" Socio-Economic Review, Volume 5, Number 2, April 2007, pp. 287–318(32)
25. ^ Engels, Friedrich. "The Principles of Communism". Vorwärts – via Marxist Internet Archive.
26. ^ Cited in Merrill & Smith (2017), pp. 238–39.
27. ^ Samuel Noah Kramer. "From the Tablets of Sumer: 20-Five Firsts in Homo's Recorded History." Indian Hills: The Falcon's Wing Printing, 1956.
28. ^ "Property and Freedom". www.nytimes.com . Retrieved 2018-01-10 .
29. ^ This bears some similarities to the over-use argument of Garrett Hardin's "Tragedy of the Commons."
30. ^ Carlyle, A.J. (1913). Property: Its Duties and Rights. London: Macmillan. p. 121. Retrieved 4 Apr 2015. citing Cicero, De officiis, i. seven, "Sunt autem privata nulla natura".
31. ^ Carlyle, A.J. (1913). Property: Its Duties and Rights. London: Macmillan. p. 122. Retrieved 4 April 2015. citing Seneca, Epistles, fourteen, 2.
32. ^ Carlyle, A.J. (1913). Property: Its Duties and Rights. London: Macmillan. p. 125. Retrieved 4 April 2015.
33. ^ Carlyle, A.J. (1913). Property: Its Duties and Rights. London: Macmillan. p. 127. Retrieved 4 April 2015. citing Decretum, D. viii. Role I.
34. ^ Carlyle, A.J. (1913). Property: Its Duties and Rights. London: Macmillan. p. 128. Retrieved 4 April 2015.
35. ^ "Summa Theologica: Theft and robbery (Secunda Secundae Partis, Q. 66)". Retrieved xiv May 2015.
36. ^ "The Origin of Property." Anti Essays. 27 May 2012, <http://www.antiessays.com/free-essays/226947.html>
37. ^ John Locke, "The Second Treatise of Civil Government" (1690), Chap. 9, §§ 123–124.
38. ^ John Locke, "The Second Treatise of Civil Government" (1690), Chap. XI, § 136.
39. ^ John Locke, "The Second Treatise of Civil Authorities" (1690), Chap. Xi, § 137.
40. ^ This view is reflected in the opinion of the United States Supreme Court in "United States v. Willow River Ability Co.".
41. ^ An Enquiry Into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, by Adam Smith, Cooke & Hale, 1818, p. 167
42. ^ The Radical Liberalism of Charles Comte and Charles Dunoyer Archived 2006-01-30 at the Wayback Machine
43. ^ Bastiat: Economic Harmonies.
44. ^ "Economic Harmonies (Boyers trans.) – Online Library of Liberty". Retrieved 14 May 2015.
45. ^ Galambos, Andrew (1999). Sic Itur Ad Astra. San Diego, California: The Universal Scientific Publications Company, Inc. pp. 868–869. ISBN 0-88078-004-5.
46. ^ Galambos, Andrew (1999). Sic Itur Ad Astra. San Diego, California: The Universal Scientific Publications Company, Inc. p. 23. ISBN 0-88078-004-5.
47. ^ Galambos, Andrew (1999). Sic Itur Ad Astra. San Diego, California: The Universal Scientific Publications Company, Inc. pp. 39, 52, 84, 92–93, 153, 201, 326. ISBN 0-88078-004-5.
48. ^ "Finance & Development, March 2001 – The Mystery of Upper-case letter". Finance, and Development – F&D . Retrieved xiv May 2015.
49. ^ ^{a b} Kristen A. Carpenter, Sonia Katyal, and Angela Riley, 'In Defence force of Property' [2009] 118 Yale 50 J 101, 101–117, 124–138
50. ^ Margaret Jane Radin, Belongings and Personhood, 34 STAN. L. REV. 957, 1013-fifteen (1982)

Bibliography [edit]

• Bastiat, Frédéric, 1850. Economical Harmonies. W. Hayden Boyers.
• Bastiat, Frédéric, 1850. "The Law", tr. Dean Russell.
• Bethell, Tom, 1998. "The Noblest Triumph: Property and Prosperity through the Ages." New York: St. Martin's Press.
• Blackstone, William, 1765–69. "Commentaries on the Laws of England", 4 vols. Oxford Univ. Printing. Specially Books the 2nd and Third.
• De Soto, Hernando, 1989. "The Other Path". Harper & Row.
• De Soto, Hernando, and Francis Cheneval, 2006. Realizing Property Rights. Ruffer & Rub.
• Ellickson, Robert, 1993. ""Belongings in Country" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-04-09. (vi.40 MB)", Yale Law Periodical 102: 1315–1400.
• Mckay, John P., 2004, "A History of Globe Societies". Boston: Houghton Mifflin Visitor
• Palda, Filip (2011) "Pareto's Commonwealth and the New Science of Peace" 2011 [2] chapters online. Published by Cooper-Wolfling. ISBN 978-0-9877880-0-9
• Pipes, Richard, 1999. "Property and Freedom". New York: Knopf Doubleday. ISBN 978-0-375-40498-six

External links [edit]

• Quotations related to Holding at Wikiquote
• Concepts of Property, Hugh Breakey, Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
• "Right to Private Holding", Tibor Machan, Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
• Friedmann, Wolfgang (1974). "Holding". In Wiener, Philip P. (ed.). Dictionary of the History of Ideas: Studies of Selected Pivotal Ideas. Vol. iii (University of Virginia, Electronic Text Eye ed.). New York: Scribners. pp. 650–657.
• "Property and Ownership" Jeremy Waldron, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2016 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Property

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